Biology

The aim of the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) 2026 syllabus in Biology is to prepare the candidates for the Board’s examination. It is designed to test their achievement of the course objectives.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This syllabus is designed to assess candidates’
1 . understanding of the structure and functions of living organisms as well as appreciation of nature;
2. acquisition of adequate laboratory and field skills in order to carry out and evaluate experiments and projects in Biology;
3. acquisition of necessary scientific skills for example observing, classifying, and interpreting biological data;
4. acquisition of the basic relevant knowledge in Biology needed for future advanced studies in biological sciences;
5. acquisition of scientific attitudes for problem-solving;
6. ability to apply biological principles in everyday life in matters that affect personal, social, environmental, community health, and economic problems;
7. awareness of the existence of interrelationships between biology and other scientific disciplines

SCHEME OF EXAMINATION

There will be three papers: Papers 1, 2 and 3, all of which must be taken. Papers 1 and 2 will be a composite paper to be taken at one sitting.
PAPER 1: Will consist of fifty multiple-choice objective questions drawn from Section A of the syllabus (the section of the syllabus which is common to all countries). It will carry 50 marks and last for 50 minutes.

PAPER 2: Will consist of six essay questions drawn from the entire syllabus. The paper will be put into three sections, Sections A, B and C.
Section A: Will consist of four questions drawn from Section A of the syllabus.
Section B: Will be for candidates in Ghana only and will be drawn from Section B of the syllabus (ie the section of the syllabus perculiar to Ghana). It will consist of short-structured questions.
Section C: Will be for candidates in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, The Gambia and Liberia and will be drawn from Section C of the syllabus (ie the section of the syllabus containing material for those countries only). It will also consist of short-structured questions.
Candidates will be expected to answer two questions from Section A and all the short-structured questions from either Section B or Section C.
Each question in Section A will carry 20 marks while the compulsory short-structured questions in Sections B and C will carry 30 marks. The total score will be 70 marks. The paper shall take 1 hour 40 minutes.

PAPER 3: Will be a practical test (for school candidates) or a test of practical work (for private candidates) lasting 2 hours and consisting of three sections: Sections A, B and C.
Section A: This will consist of two compulsory questions drawn from Section A of the syllabus, each carrying 25 marks.
Section B: This will be for candidates in Ghana only. It will consist of one question drawn from Section B of the syllabus and will carry 30 marks.
Section C: This will be for candidates in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, The Gambia and Liberia. It will consist of one question drawn from Section C of the syllabus and will carry 30 marks.
Candidates will be expected to answer all the questions in Section A and one question in either Section B or C. The paper will carry a total score of 80 marks.

DETAILED SYLLABUS

Concept of Living

Classification

Living and non-living things

Classification of living things into Kingdoms

Differences between plants and animals

Organization of life

(i) Levels of organization

cell (single-celled organisms): Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium

Tissue: Hydra

Organ (storage organ) bulb, rhizome and heart.

System/Organ System: In mammals, flowering plants – reproductive system, excretory system, etc.

(ii) Complexity of organization in higher organisms: advantages and disadvantages

Forms in which living cells exist

Single and free-living: Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, and Chlamydomonas

Colony: Volvox

Filament: Spirogyra

Part of a living organism: cheek cells, onion root tip cells, and epidermis of fleshy leaves

Cell

Cell structure and functions of cell components

Similarities and differences between plant and animal cells

The Cell and its environment

Physical and biophysical processes

diffusion

osmosis

active transport

Properties and functions of the living cell

(i) Nutrition

Autotrophic (photosynthesis)

Heterotrophic (holozoic)

Cellular respiration

Aerobic respiration

anaerobic respiration

energy release

(ii) Excretion

Excretion in single-celled aquatic organisms. Diffusion by the body surface and by the contractile vacuole

Waste products of metabolism

(iii) Growth

Basis of growth: cell division (mitosis), enlargement, and differentiation.

Aspects of growth: increase in dry weight, irreversible increase in size and length, and increase in the number of cells.

Regions of the fastest growth in plants

Influence of growth hormones and auxins

Growth curvatures (Tropisms)

(iv) Development: Enlargement and differentiation

(v) Movement

Organelles for movement: cilia and flagella

Cyclosis

(vi) Reproduction:

Types of reproduction.

Asexual: fission, budding and vegetative propagation

Sexual: Conjugation, formation of male and female gametes (gametogenesis), fusion of gametes fertilization)

Tissues and supporting systems

(i) Skeletons and supporting systems in animals

Biological significance

Skeletal materials, e.g. bone, cartilage and chitin.

Types of skeleton: exoskeleton, endoskeleton and hydrostatic skeleton

Bones of the vertebral column, girdles and long bones of the appendicular skeleton

Mechanisms of support in animals

Functions of the skeleton in animals: Protection, support, locomotion and respiratory movement

(ii) Different types of supporting tissues in plants

Main features of supporting tissues in plants

Functions of supporting tissues in plants: strength, rigidity (resistance against the forces of the wind and water), flexibility and resilience.

Transport System

(i) Need for transport

surface area/volume ratio.

Substances have to move greater distances

(ii) Transport in animals

Structure of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries

Composition and function of blood and lymph

Materials for transport: excretory products, gases, digested food, and other nutrients

(iii) Transport in plants

Uptake and movement of water and mineral salts in plants

Translocation

Transpiration

Movement of water to the apex of trees and herbs

Respiratory System

Body surface: cutaneous, gills and lungs.

Mechanisms of gaseous exchange in fish, toads, mammals and plants

Excretory Systems and Mechanisms

Types of excretory systems: Kidney, stomata and lenticels

Regulation of Internal Environment (Homeostasis)

Kidney: Structure and functions

* Liver

Functions of the liver

* The skin

Structure and function

Hormonal Coordination

* Animal hormones

Site of secretion, functions and effects of over- and under-secretion

* Plant hormones

Nervous Coordination

(i) The central nervous system

Components of the central nervous system

Parts of the brain and their functions: cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, hypothalamus and their functions

Structure and Function of the Spinal Cord

(ii) Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System

Autonomic nervous system

Structure and functions of the neurone

Classification of neurones

(iii) Types of nervous actions

The reflex arc

Reflex and voluntary actions

Differences between reflex and voluntary actions

Conditioned reflex and its role in behaviour

Sense Organs

(i) Structure and function of the:

Eye

Ear

Reproductive System

(i) Reproductive systems of mammals

Structure and function of male and female reproductive systems

Differences between male and female reproductive organs

Structure of the gametes (sperm and ovum)

Fertilization, development of the embryo and birth

Birth control

(ii) Metamorphosis in insects: life histories of butterfly and cockroach

(iii) Comparison of reproduction in fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals

(iv) Reproduction in flowering plants

Arrangements of the floral parts of a named insect-pollinated flower and a named wind-pollinated flower

Structure and function of the male and female parts of a flower

(iv) Pollination in Plants

Types of pollination

Features of cross-pollinated and self-pollinated flowers

Agents of Pollination

(v) Kinds of placentation: axile, marginal and parietal

(vi) Process of development of the zygote in flowering plants: Fertilisation

Types of fruits (classification)

Structure of fruits

(vii) Dispersal of fruits and seeds: Agents of dispersal

Plant and Animal Nutrition

Plant Nutrition

(i) Photosynthesis

Process of photosynthesis and its chemical equation

Light and dark reactions

Materials and conditions necessary for photosynthesis

Evidence of photosynthesis

(ii) Mineral requirements of plants

Mineral nutrition: Macro and micro-nutrients

Soil and atmosphere as sources of mineral elements.

Animal Nutrition

(i) Food substances: classes and sources

(ii) Balanced diet and its importance

(iii) Food tests

(iv) Digestive enzymes: Classes, characteristics and functions

(v) Modes of Nutrition

Autotrophic: Photosynthesis

Heterotrophic: holozoic, parasitic, symbiotic and saprophytic

(vi) Alimentary System

Alimentary tract of different animals.

(vii) Dental Formula

(viii) Feeding in protozoa and mammals

Basic Ecological Concepts

Ecosystem

(i) Components of the ecosystem and sizes

Ecological components: environment, biosphere, habitat, population, biotic community and ecosystem

(ii) Components of the ecosystem

Biotic and abiotic

Ecological factors

Ecological factors in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

Simple Measurement of Ecological Factors

Physical factors: Climatic, topographic and gaseous

Edaphic factors: Chemical and physical composition, moisture content and soil texture

Food webs and trophic levels

(i) Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

Producers: autotrophs

Consumers: heterotrophs

Decomposers

(ii) Trophic levels of energy relationships

Food chain

Food web

(iii) Energy flow

Food/Energy relationship in aquatic and terrestrial environments

Pyramid of energy and Pyramid of numbers

(vi) Decomposition in nature

Decomposers: (micro and macro-decomposers)

Gaseous products

Role of decomposers

Ecological Management

(i) Biological Associations

Type of associations: Parasitism, symbiosis, commensalism and saprophytism

(ii) Adaptation of organisms to habitats

(iii) Pollution of the atmosphere

Nature, names, sources and effects of air pollutants

Effect of noise

(iv) Water and Soil Pollution

Types and effects of pollutants

Ecology of population

(i) Ecological succession

Structural changes in species composition, variety or diversity and an increase in numbers

General characteristics and outcomes of succession

(ii) Primary succession

(iii) Succession in terrestrial and aquatic habitats

(iv) Secondary succession, climax of the succession: characteristic of a stable ecosystem

(v) Factors that affect population size: natality, mortality, emigration, immigration, food shortage, predation, competition and diseases

(vi) Preservation and storage of foods

(vii) The life of selected insects

Weevils and cotton strainers

Control of pests

Microorganisms: Man and health

(i) Carriers of microorganisms

(ii) Microorganisms in action

Beneficial effects in nature, medicine and industries

Harmful effects of microorganisms, diseases caused by microorganisms: cholera, measles, malaria and ringworm.

(iii) Towards better Health

Methods of controlling harmful microorganisms: high temperature, antibiotics, antiseptics, high salinity and dehydration

Ways of controlling the vectors

(iv) Public Health

Refuse and sewage disposal

Immunisation, vaccination and inoculation (control of diseases)

Conservation of Natural Resources

Resources to be conserved: soil, water, wildlife, forest and minerals

Ways of ensuring conservation

Variation in Population

Morphological variations in the physical appearance of individuals

size, height and weight

colour (skin, eye, hair coat of animals)

fingerprints

Physiological Variations

Ability to roll the tongue

Ability to taste

phenylthiocarbamide (PTC)

Blood groups (ABO) classification

Biology of Heredity (Genetics)

Genetic Terminologies

Transmission and expression of characteristics in organisms

(i) Hereditary variation

(ii) Mendel’s work in genetics

Mendel’s experiments

Mendelian traits

Mendelian laws

Chromosomes: The basis of heredity

Structure

Process of transmission of hereditary characters from parents to offspring

Probability in genetics (Hybrid formation)

Linkage, sex determination and sex-linked characters

Application of the principles of heredity in

Agriculture

Medicine

Adaptation for Survival and Evolution

Behavioural Adaptations in Social Animals

Termites

Bees

Evolution

Evidence of evolution

Theories of evolution

SECTION B

Introducing Biology

Biology as a science of life

Procedure for biological work

Importance of Biology

Body symmetry, sectioning and orientation

The microscope

Biological drawings

Cell Biology

Movement of substances into and out of cells: Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Nucleic acids

DNA structure and replication, RNA transcription

Protein synthesis

Cell cycle

Life Processes in Living Things

Amoeba, Paramecium, and Euglena

Spirogyra and Rhizopus

Mosses and ferns

Diversity of Living Things

Characteristics of some of the orders of Class Insecta

Identification of organisms using biological keys

Interactions in Nature Soil

Mammalian Anatomy and Physiology

(i) Dissection of a small mammal

(ii) Transport: Structure of the mammalian heart

(iii) Cellular respiration

(iv) Movement

Muscles

Skeletal tissues

(v) Reproduction

Secondary sexual characteristics

Prenatal/Antenatal care

Plant Structure and Physiology

Morphology of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants.

Transport: Guttation

Reproduction: Floral formula

Humans and Their Environment

(i) Integrated water resources management

(ii) Health and hygiene

Drug abuse

Community Health

First Aid

Evolution

Recombinant DNA Technology

Biology and Industry

(i) Biology and the water industry

Contamination of water

Identification of polluted water

Wastewater treatment

(ii) Biology and the fishing industry

Fish stock management

Fish farming

(iii) Biology and the food industry

Food additives

Biology and Agriculture

Biotechnology

Biological fuel generation

SECTION C

Concept of Living

(i) Cell theory

(ii) Irritability as a basic characteristic of protoplasm

Types of responses: taxis and nastism

Environmental factors that evoke responses: temperature, pH, etc

(iii) Excretory Systems

Diseases of the kidney: Nephritis, kidney stone and diuresis, their effects and remedies.

Diseases of the liver: infective hepatitis, cancer of the liver and gallstones. Their effects and remedies

Sense organs

Nose

Tongue

The skin

Reproduction

(i) Courtship behaviour in animals

Pairing

Display e.g. peacocks

Territoriality

Seasonal migration is associated with breeding in herrings, eels and birds.

(ii) Metamorphosis and life history of houseflies.

(iii) Adaptive features in a developing animal

Yolk in eggs of fish, toads and birds for nourishment

Placenta in animals

(iv) Germination of seeds

Essential factors which affect developing embryos.

Types of germination

Plant and Animal Nutrition

Nitrogen cycle

Modes of nutrition:

autotrophic, chemosynthetic, and carnivorous plants

Alimentary System

Alimentary tracts of different animals

Description and function of various parts.

Feeding habits

Categories: Carnivorous, herbivorous and omnivorous

Modifications and mechanisms associated with the following habits: filter feeding, fluid feeding, feeding adaptation in insects, saprophytic feeding, parasitic feeding, etc.